load-balancing

Load Balancing

Spread incoming requests across a pool of identical backends so no single server is the bottleneck or the single point of failure. Get it wrong and the balancer becomes the SPOF it was meant to remove, routes traffic to dead servers, or amplifies an outage by hammering a backend that is already on its knees.

When to reach for this

Reach for a balancer when more than one backend serves the same role and traffic must be split across them; when a single entry point is a SPOF to eliminate; to add or remove servers without clients noticing (the enabler for the stateless tier and autoscaling); or to put one public address in front of a private fleet, with TLS termination, health-gating, and routing in one place.

When NOT to

One backend that comfortably handles peak load needs no balancer yet — adding one is a new component, a new failure mode, and a new thing to operate (YAGNI). If the real bottleneck is the database or a single hot shard, a balancer in front of the web tier solves nothing; diagnose the actual constraint first (→ back-of-the-envelope). Cross-region traffic steering is usually DNS/anycast at the edge, not an L4/L7 balancer (→ content-delivery). Per-client request limiting is a policy concern owned by resilience-failure, not the balancing algorithm.

Clarify first

• Protocol & layer need — raw TCP/UDP throughput (L4) or HTTP-aware routing by path/host/header/cookie (L7)? This picks the balancer type.
• State — is the backend stateless, or does a session live on one server (forcing affinity)? Moving state out is almost always the better answer.
• Peak QPS & connection count — one fat connection stream or many short requests? Drives algorithm and balancer sizing (→ back-of-the-envelope).
• Health signal — what does "healthy" mean (TCP accept? a /healthz 200? a deep dependency check?) and how fast must a dead node leave the pool?
• TLS — terminate at the balancer (offload backends, inspect L7) or pass through end-to-end (compliance/mTLS)?

The options

Layer of inspection

• L4 (transport): route by IP/port; forward packets via NAT or DSR without reading payload. Use when you need raw throughput, non-HTTP protocols, or the lowest added latency.
• L7 (application): terminate the connection, read HTTP (host, path, headers, cookies), then route. Use when you need content-based routing, per-route pools, TLS termination, or request rewriting.

Distribution algorithm

• Round robin / weighted round robin: even rotation, weighted by capacity. Use for uniform, stateless backends.
• Least connections / least response time: send to the least-busy node. Use when request cost varies widely (long-lived connections, mixed workloads).
• IP hash / consistent hash: map a client (or key) to a stable backend. Use for affinity without server-side session storage, or to keep cache locality.
• Random (two-choices): pick two at random, take the lighter — cheap and surprisingly even at scale.

Topology

• Active-passive: one balancer serves, a standby takes the VIP on failure. Simple HA.
• Active-active: multiple balancers share load (via DNS or anycast). Removes the balancer's own SPOF and adds headroom.

Reverse proxy role: an L7 balancer is also a reverse proxy — one public face that hides backends, terminates TLS, compresses, caches, and centralizes routing. A reverse proxy is worth it even with a single backend for those benefits; load balancing is the multi-backend case of the same component.

Trade-offs

Option	What it solves	What it worsens	Change it when
L4 balancing	Max throughput, low latency, any protocol	Blind to content; no path/header routing, no TLS inspection	You need content-based routing or TLS termination → L7
L7 balancing	Content routing, TLS offload, rewrites, observability	Higher latency/CPU; terminates connections (more state)	Raw throughput dominates and routing is trivial → L4
Round robin	Dead simple, even for uniform work	Ignores actual load; a slow node still gets its share	Request costs vary a lot → least-connections
Least connections	Adapts to uneven request cost	Needs live connection state; can herd onto a just-recovered node	Backends are uniform → round robin is enough
IP/consistent hash	Affinity & cache locality without session store	Uneven spread; rebalances on pool change	You can externalize state → round robin + shared store
Sticky sessions	Works with stateful backends today	Breaks even spread, complicates scale-in, loses session on node death	State can move to Redis/DB → drop affinity
Active-passive	Simple HA for the balancer	Idle standby; failover gap (seconds)	You need zero-gap headroom → active-active

Behavior under stress

The balancer sits in the request path of everything, so its failure modes are the whole system's failure modes.

• Health-check stampede (the classic foot-gun): a backend recovers, the balancer marks it healthy, and the full firehose hits a single cold node — empty caches, cold JIT, full connection backlog — so it fails its next health check and drops out, oscillating (flapping). Aggressive checks can effectively DDoS a recovering service. Mitigate with slow-start / connection ramping, generous failure thresholds (N strikes before eviction, M before re-admission), check jitter, and a circuit breaker on the dependency path (→ resilience-failure).
• Retry amplification: the balancer (or clients) retries failed requests onto the remaining healthy nodes, so losing one node can cascade as the survivors absorb its load plus the retries. Cap retries; use backoff with jitter (owned by resilience-failure).
• Uneven load / hot backend: long-lived connections or sticky sessions pin load to a few nodes; round robin can't see it. Watch per-backend utilization, not just the aggregate.
• Balancer as SPOF: a single balancer failing takes everything down. Run it active-active or active-passive with a fast VIP/anycast failover.
• Thundering reconnect: if the balancer restarts, every client reconnects at once. Stagger draining and connection limits.

Monitor: per-backend request rate and latency (p99), healthy-host count, health-check pass/fail and flap rate, connection counts, 5xx rate at the balancer vs. at backends (divergence localizes the fault), and active connection distribution.

How to apply

1. Clarify the inputs — answer the Clarify first questions: protocol/layer, whether the backend is stateless, peak QPS and connection count, what "healthy" means, and the TLS posture. These pin every later choice.
2. Pick the layer and algorithm from the trade-off table — choose L4 for raw throughput/non-HTTP, L7 for content routing or TLS offload. Default to round robin for uniform stateless backends; reach for least-connections only when request cost varies, and hash-based affinity only when state can't move yet.
3. Set the key knobs — write the health check concretely (method, path, expected code, interval, fail/recover thresholds) and the pool's drain delay; enable slow-start so a recovering node ramps instead of taking the firehose.
4. Stress-test the choice — walk the failure modes: health-check stampede, retry amplification, hot backend, and the balancer as SPOF. Add active-active (or active-passive with fast VIP/anycast failover) so the balancer is not the new single point of failure.
5. Size with numbers — confirm the balancer handles peak QPS and concurrent connections, and verify the backend fleet (not the balancer) is the binding constraint. Pull per-server QPS and connection-memory figures from back-of-the-envelope.
6. Pick a provider — default to the generic recipe; if a cloud is named, read its provider file for the managed-service mapping and limits.

Dos and don'ts

Do

• Push session state into a shared store so plain round robin and autoscaling work.
• Define health checks explicitly and choose shallow-vs-deep on purpose.
• Run the balancer active-active or active-passive so it is not a SPOF.
• Enable slow-start and generous fail/recover thresholds to stop flapping.
• Watch per-backend utilization, not just the aggregate, to catch hot nodes.

Don't

• Don't add a balancer for a single backend that handles peak (YAGNI) — a reverse proxy may still be worth it, but multi-backend balancing is not.
• Don't let a deep health check on a slow dependency evict the whole fleet at once.
• Don't reach for sticky sessions when the state can move out of the box.
• Don't retry blindly into the surviving nodes; cap retries and use backoff/jitter.
• Don't assume the balancer is the bottleneck before confirming the backend fleet is.

Numbers that matter

A modern software balancer (HAProxy/Nginx/Envoy) handles tens of thousands of requests/sec and many thousands of concurrent connections per instance — usually well above a single web/app node, so it is rarely the first bottleneck. Size it against peak QPS and concurrent connections, and confirm the backend fleet (not the balancer) is the binding constraint. Per-server QPS rates, connection-memory cost, and peak-factor math live in back-of-the-envelope — don't restate them here; pull the figures from there to size the pool and the balancer.

Interface sketch

Load balancing has no request/response contract of its own, but two configs are load-bearing and worth writing down concretely:

• Health check: method + path + expected code + interval + thresholds, e.g. GET /healthz → 200, every 5s, unhealthy after 3 fails, healthy after 2 passes. Make /healthz shallow (process alive) vs. deep (checks DB) deliberately — a deep check that fails on a slow dependency can evict the whole fleet at once.
• Backend pool / target group: the set of host:port targets, weights, and the drain/deregistration delay used on scale-in so in-flight requests finish.

How load balancing enables the stateless tier

Spreading requests freely across interchangeable servers only works if any server can serve any request — i.e. no session state lives on the box. Push session/state into a shared store (Redis/DB) so the balancer can use plain round robin, add or remove nodes at will, and let an autoscaling group grow/shrink the pool. Sticky sessions are the fallback when state can't move yet, at the cost of even spread and easy scale-in. The horizontal-scale and stateless-tier story is owned by scaling-evolution; this skill is the mechanism that makes it routable.

Choosing a provider

Default to the generic recipe above. If the user names a cloud, read references/providers/<provider>.md for the managed-service mapping, quotas/limits, and provider-specific trade-offs. If no file exists for that provider, the generic recipe is the answer.

Diagram

To visualize the request path (client → balancer → backend pool) or the health-check/failover flow, use the in-plugin architecture-diagram skill. A quick inline sketch — client → [LB] → {web1, web2, web3} → shared state — is fine for reasoning; do not embed Mermaid.

Related building blocks

• scaling-evolution — feeds into this: it owns the stateless tier and horizontal vs. vertical scaling, and this skill is the routing mechanism that makes that fleet addressable.
• resilience-failure — pairs with this whenever the balancer can amplify an outage; owned-concept lives in it — retries/backoff/jitter, circuit breakers, failover, and rate limiting are the cure for health-check stampedes and retry storms.
• content-delivery — alternative to this for cross-region traffic: when "balancing" is really steering users to the nearest region, geo/DNS/anycast at the edge (owned there) is the right tool, not an L4/L7 balancer.
• back-of-the-envelope — depends on it for the QPS, connection, and peak-factor numbers that size the pool and the balancer.
• system-design — the orchestrator that routes here when a design grows past one server.

References

• references/deep-dive.md — L4 NAT vs. DSR, how L7 termination works, the algorithm internals (incl. consistent hashing for affinity), health-check tuning and slow-start, connection draining, TLS termination vs. passthrough. Read when configuring a balancer in detail.
• references/providers/{generic,aws,azure,gcp}.md — service mappings, limits, and pitfalls per environment.