eu-data-act-compliance

EU Data Act Compliance Assessment

Assess your organization's obligations under the EU Data Act (Regulation (EU) 2023/2854) for connected products, data sharing, cloud services, and B2G data requests.

Important: This skill supports a structured legal-compliance workflow. It does not replace legal judgment. Data Act obligations are context-dependent and interact with GDPR, sector regulations, and national implementation measures. Always identify assumptions, open questions, and contested interpretations explicitly.

Key Dates:

• Entered into force: 11 January 2024
• Main requirements apply from: 12 September 2025
• Access-by-design obligations apply from: 12 September 2026
• Cloud switching fee phase-out: 12 January 2027

Data Act Compliance Workflow

Follow this sequence in order. Do not skip the scope assessment.

Step 1 - Scope Assessment: Which Data Act role(s) does your organization have?

The Data Act imposes different obligations depending on your role in the data ecosystem.

Assess whether your organization is:

1. Manufacturer of a connected product - entity placing a connected product on the market under its name or trademark under the Regulation's product-related definitions. Assess providers of related services separately rather than folding them into the manufacturer role.
2. Provider of a related service - assess separately where a digital service is incorporated in or inter-connected with the product in a way that affects Data Act access obligations.
3. Data holder - legal or natural person with the right or obligation to make data available (Article 2(6))
4. User - natural or legal person that owns, rents, or leases a connected product or receives a related service (Article 2(7))
5. Data recipient - legal or natural person to whom the data holder makes data available (Article 2(8))
6. Data processing service provider - provider of commercial data processing services (cloud, edge computing) (Article 2(11))
7. Public body - authority that may request data under emergency or public interest grounds (Chapter V)

Critical exclusions:

• Gatekeeper platforms under the Digital Markets Act have separate obligations
• SMEs (< 50 employees, < €10M turnover) as manufacturers may benefit from simplified obligations

Boundary note: Importers and distributors are not automatically equivalent to manufacturers, but may be relevant depending on who places the product on the market, under whose name, and what contractual / technical control exists.

Ask:

• Do you manufacture or import IoT devices, smart products, or connected equipment?
• Do you operate services that generate data from product use?
• Do you hold data generated by products you don't manufacture?
• Do you offer cloud computing, data storage, or processing services commercially?
• Are you a public authority that might need data for emergency response or public interest tasks?

→ For detailed role definitions and boundary cases, read references/scope-assessment.md.

Step 1b - Data Scope Triage

Before proceeding, triage the data in question to avoid misapplication:

Ask:

• Data nature: Personal / non-personal / mixed?
• Availability: Readily available to the data holder, or requires new processing?
• Data type: Raw / observed / derived / inferred?
• Sensitivity: Trade secret / commercially sensitive / non-sensitive?
• Sector constraints: Subject to sector-specific secrecy (e.g., banking, health) or security restrictions?

Most Data Act misapplication errors stem from failing to correctly scope the data at the outset. Derived analytics, inferred insights, and proprietary enrichment layers are not automatically subject to the same access obligations as raw product telemetry.

Step 2 - Connected Product Data Access Rights (Chapters II-III)

If your organization is a data holder for connected product data, you must enable user access and third-party sharing on user request.

User access rights (Article 4):

• Users have access rights to data generated by the use of the connected product or related service that are readily available to the data holder under the Regulation. Do not assume this automatically includes all inferred, derived, or proprietary analytics created by the manufacturer or service provider.
• Access must be provided without undue delay. Where relevant and technically feasible, the data shall be made available continuously and in real time.
• Data must be provided in a structured, commonly used, machine-readable format
• Access must be free of charge, easy, and secure
• The Data Act restricts certain uses of product and related service data by data holders and data recipients. Where the shared or accessible data includes personal data, any further processing must also comply with the GDPR, which may rely on a lawful basis other than consent. Do not assume consent is the only legal basis.

Third-party sharing rights (Article 5-7):

• Users can instruct the data holder to make data available to a third party (data recipient)
• The data recipient may use the data to provide a value-added service to the user
• Data holders must respond without undue delay and enable direct access or provide data copy
• A data holder may restrict or refuse sharing only on grounds expressly recognized by the Regulation, including in particular where trade secrets would be jeopardized despite protective measures, where the requesting third party is a DMA gatekeeper or a party acting on its behalf, or where other Article 6 protections apply. Do not rely on a generic "lack of resources" rationale unless it is tied to a specific legal ground in the Regulation.
• Gatekeeper exclusion (Article 6(2)(e)): Data holders may NOT be compelled to share data with DMA-designated gatekeepers
• SME exemption (Article 7(1)): Micro and small enterprises (< 10 employees, < €2M turnover) are EXEMPT from data sharing obligations when acting as data holders
• Compensation / charges: assess Articles 8 and 9 carefully. The Data Act does not create a general rule that fees may be charged merely because requests are "frequent" or "complex." Any compensation mechanism must be checked against the specific role of the requesting party, the applicable chapter, and the Regulation's limits on what may be charged.

Key obligations for data holders:

1. Establish technical means for data access (APIs, interfaces, secure channels)
2. Document what data is available, in what format, and how to request it
3. Respond to user/third-party requests within reasonable time
4. Apply proportionate security and authentication
5. Notify users of refusals with reasons

Ask:

• What connected products does your organization manufacture or operate?
• What data is generated by product use?
• Can users access their data in real-time today?
• Are there APIs or interfaces for third-party data recipients?
• What justifications exist for refusing data access (trade secrets, security)?

→ For detailed access obligations, technical requirements, and refusal grounds, read references/data-access-rights.md.

Step 3 - Pre-Sale Transparency (Article 3)

If your organization is a manufacturer, you must provide information to users before purchase or lease.

Before concluding a contract or placing an order, inform the user:

1. What data is generated by use of the connected product or related service
2. Whether the data is accessible to the user and, if so, how
3. Whether the data is accessible to third parties at the user's request and, if so, how
4. If access is subject to fees, the basis for calculating them

Note: The Article 3 information items are broader than listed above - verify the exact Article 3 list rather than treating this as exhaustive.

The information must be:

• Clear, comprehensible, and easily accessible
• Provided in a prominent manner, not buried in terms
• Available before the user is bound by the contract

Ask:

• Do product descriptions, spec sheets, or pre-sale materials explain what data is generated?
• Is it clear whether users can access their data, and through which channels?
• Are fee structures for data access disclosed upfront?
• Is the information understandable to non-technical users?

This is a transparency obligation, not a full consent requirement, but it enables informed purchasing decisions.

Step 4 - Unfair Contract Terms in B2B Data Sharing Contracts (Chapter IV)

If your organization enters B2B contracts for data access or use, assess whether contract terms are unfair under Articles 13-14.

The Data Act establishes a two-tier unfairness test for contracts between enterprises:

Unfair terms control (Article 13): do not reduce Article 13 to a short homemade blacklist. The Regulation contains:

• a set of terms that are not binding where imposed in a take-it-or-leave-it B2B context under Article 13(1), and
• a separate set of terms that are presumed unfair under Article 13(2) unless the relying party proves otherwise.

For legal review, compare the clause text directly against Article 13(1) and 13(2), rather than relying on shorthand labels.

Important caution on Article 13(3): do not present it as a broad "safe harbor." Individual negotiation and use of model terms may be relevant in the fairness analysis, but they do not automatically immunize a clause from Article 13 review.

Model Contractual Terms (MCTs):

• Article 41 required the Commission to develop non-binding MCTs by September 2025
• Draft expert report published 1 April 2025, Commission Recommendation issued 20 November 2025
• Four sets: (1) Data Holder to User, (2) User to Data Recipient, (3) Data Holder to Data Recipient, (4) Data Sharer to Data Recipient (voluntary sharing)
• MCTs are non-binding model terms that can serve as a drafting benchmark, but they do not create a blanket statutory safe harbor. Contract terms should still be tested against Article 13 on their own wording, negotiation history, and commercial context.

Ask:

• Are you the data holder or data recipient in B2B data sharing agreements?
• Do your standard terms contain unilateral termination, interpretation, or liability exclusions?
• Are data access rights or remedies restricted?
• Were terms individually negotiated, or are they take-it-or-leave-it?
• Is the counterparty an SME, making unfairness more likely?

→ For the full catalogue of unfair terms with examples and safe harbor guidance, read references/unfair-terms-catalogue.md.

Step 5 - B2G Data Sharing: Public Authority Requests (Chapter V)

If your organization is a data holder, you may in strictly limited cases be required to provide data to a public sector body, the Commission, the ECB, or a Union body where the Regulation's exceptional need conditions are met.

Note: Chapter V is not a workaround around GDPR. Where personal data is involved in B2G requests, GDPR compliance remains mandatory.

Two grounds for B2G data requests:

Emergency requests (Article 15):

• Public emergency (e.g., public health crisis, natural disaster, major accident)
• Data is necessary to respond to the emergency
• No other means available in time
• Request must specify necessity, purpose, data scope, urgency
• No compensation for emergency provision

Requests based on an exceptional need other than a public emergency (Article 17):

• Exceptional need to prevent public emergency or assist recovery
• Data cannot be obtained from other sources
• Must be proportionate and time-limited
• Compensation for costs, including reasonable margin (Article 20)

Data holder obligations:

1. Respond to requests without undue delay
2. Apply reasonable technical, organizational, and financial effort
3. Any refusal or limitation must be tied to a specific ground and procedure in Chapter V, including the Regulation's rules on trade secrets, confidentiality, protection against abuse, proportionality, and available review mechanisms. Do not use a generic "commercial interests" objection as a standalone rule without checking the exact statutory basis.
4. Notify refusals with reasons
5. Maintain confidentiality unless public body permits publication

Ask:

• Does your organization hold data that could be relevant for emergency response (health, infrastructure, mobility, environmental)?
• What is the process for receiving and evaluating B2G data requests?
• Are there mechanisms to assess proportionality and protect trade secrets?
• Who is the designated contact for public authority requests?

→ For detailed B2G request procedures, proportionality tests, and compensation rules, read references/b2g-data-sharing.md.

Step 6 - Cloud Switching and Portability (Chapters VI-VII)

If your organization is a data processing service provider (cloud/edge provider), you have switching facilitation and interoperability obligations.

Customer switching rights (Article 23-25):

1. Exit without penalty - customers can switch provider or move to on-premises at contract end
2. Switching charges: the charging regime is subject to a transitional phase-out under the Regulation. Do not reduce this to a simple "new contracts vs existing contracts" rule unless you have checked the exact text of Article 25 and the applicable transitional provisions for the contract in question.
3. Termination and switching process: check Article 24 directly for the permitted maximum notice / transition mechanics. Do not summarize it as a universal "minimum 2 months" rule.
4. No minimum contract duration beyond what is objectively justified
5. Data export assistance - provider must enable export of customer data, applications, and digital assets in a structured, commonly used, machine-readable format
6. Functional equivalence - assess whether the exported data and metadata are sufficient for the customer to continue using equivalent services elsewhere, recognizing that this is a compliance assessment lens, not a blanket obligation to guarantee service substitutability or migration parity across all contexts

Interoperability obligations (Article 26):

• Develop and implement self-regulatory codes of conduct or standards
• Enable portability across cloud platforms
• Facilitate switching between cloud and edge, and hybrid deployments

International data transfer restrictions (Article 32):

• Cloud providers must take adequate technical, organizational, and legal measures to prevent international/third-country governmental access to non-personal data held in the EU where it would conflict with EU/national law
• Exceptions: (a) court order from third country with international agreement, or (b) urgency with safeguards
• Applies to same actors as switching obligations but separate compliance domain (Chapter VII)

Ask:

• Do you offer commercial cloud computing, storage, or data processing services?
• What are your current contract termination notice periods?
• Do you charge switching, exit, or data export fees?
• Can customers export their data in standard formats without losing functionality?
• Are interoperability standards or codes of conduct applicable to your services?

→ For switching timelines, technical export requirements, and interoperability roadmaps, read references/cloud-switching.md.

Step 7 - Trade Secret Protection (Articles 5(4), 6, 15(3))

When sharing data under user access, third-party sharing, or B2G requests, data holders may withhold trade secrets if specific conditions are met.

Trade secret safeguards:

1. Proportionality - refusal must be proportionate to the legitimate interest in protecting the secret
2. Detailed explanation - data holder must explain which data contains trade secrets and why disclosure would harm commercial interests
3. Technical/organizational measures - where possible, apply measures (anonymization, aggregation, access restrictions) to enable sharing while protecting secrets. Protective measures should be explored before outright refusal.
4. Recipient safeguards - data recipients and public bodies must maintain confidentiality and use data only for specified purposes
5. Cross-reference: see the burden of justification under Article 6 for third-party sharing refusals and Chapter V for B2G refusals.

Data holder obligations:

• Do not claim trade secret protection as a blanket refusal
• Identify the specific data elements or subsets that contain trade secrets
• Consider whether redaction, aggregation, or contractual safeguards allow partial disclosure
• Apply the least restrictive measure to achieve protection

Ask:

• What data elements contain proprietary algorithms, business logic, or commercially sensitive information?
• Can trade secrets be protected through aggregation, filtering, or use restrictions rather than full refusal?
• Are confidentiality agreements or technical access controls in place for data recipients?

Trade secret protection is a legitimate ground for limitation, but not an automatic exemption.

Step 8 - Dispute Resolution (Article 10)

Users, data holders, and data recipients have access to certified dispute settlement bodies for Data Act disputes.

Dispute resolution mechanism:

1. Certified bodies - Member States must certify dispute settlement bodies (Article 10(1))
2. Disputes covered:
   • Data access refusals
   • Fee disagreements
   • Compensation terms
   • Trade secret claims
3. Effect of the procedure: check Article 10 and the relevant national framework for the legal effect of decisions or outcomes of certified dispute settlement bodies. Do not assume in all cases that the result is purely non-binding.
4. Access for all parties - users, data holders, and data recipients can initiate

Ask:

• What is the process for escalating disputes before resorting to courts?
• Which certified bodies operate in your jurisdiction?
• Are dispute resolution clauses included in data sharing contracts?

→ For dispute resolution escalation templates and procedures, read references/templates.md.

Step 9 - Smart Contracts for Automated Data Sharing (Chapter IX)

If your organization uses or offers smart contracts to automate data access or sharing, specific obligations apply (Article 30-31).

Smart contract requirements:

1. Robustness and safety - must meet the highest standards of security, resilience, and fault tolerance
2. Interruptibility - must include mechanisms to stop or interrupt execution in case of error, fraud, or unforeseen outcomes
3. Auditability and accountability - must allow third-party evaluation and testing
4. Legal compliance - smart contract logic must respect data access rights, unfair terms prohibitions, and trade secret protections

Scope note: Distinguish between smart contracts specifically used to execute data-sharing agreements under the Regulation, and broader general-purpose blockchain or automation tooling that may fall outside the specific obligation framing.

Ask:

• Do you deploy smart contracts for data transactions, access control, or conditional data sharing?
• Are interrupt mechanisms, circuit breakers, or emergency stop functions implemented?
• Can the smart contract logic be audited for compliance with Data Act obligations?
• Is there human oversight or governance over automated execution?

This is a design and governance obligation, not just a technical implementation detail.

Step 10 - Access-by-Design Obligations for New Products (from 12 September 2026)

If your organization is a manufacturer of connected products, products where the access-by-design obligations are triggered (anchored to the Regulation's application mechanics, not a simple design-date formula) must meet access-by-design requirements.

Design obligations (Article 3(2)):

1. Data must be easily, securely, and, where relevant, directly accessible to the user by default
2. Manufacturers must design products and related services in a way that facilitates data access and portability
3. Technical architecture should avoid unnecessary barriers to third-party data access on user instruction

Ask:

• Are you currently designing new connected products or IoT devices?
• When will these products be placed on the market (before or after Sept 2026)?
• Do product specifications include default user data access mechanisms?
• Are APIs, data interfaces, or export functions part of the initial design, not afterthoughts?

Access-by-design is mandatory for products where the Regulation's application rules trigger the obligation - verify application dates and transitional rules under the Regulation and avoid reducing this to a simple design-date formula.

Step 11 - Cross-Regulation Mapping: GDPR, AI Act, CRA Interaction

The Data Act operates alongside existing EU regulations. Do not treat it in isolation.

GDPR interaction:

• Personal data continues to be protected under GDPR
• Data Act access rights do not override GDPR - where data contains personal data, both regimes apply
• Data minimization, purpose limitation, and lawful basis rules still apply
• Data recipients must comply with GDPR when processing personal data shared under Data Act rights
• Data holders may need to anonymize or pseudonymize data to comply with both frameworks
• Where personal data of multiple persons is involved, access rights must be reconciled with the rights and freedoms of others
• Friction point: Data Act access rights may create tension with GDPR data minimization - where data holders are required to retain or make available data that minimization principles would otherwise permit deletion of, a proportionality assessment is required

AI Act interaction:

• Data shared under Data Act may be used to train, test, or validate AI systems
• AI Act obligations on data quality, transparency, and documentation apply to AI training data
• High-risk AI systems may process Data Act-sourced data - ensure lawfulness under both frameworks
• Friction point: AI Act transparency requirements for high-risk systems (e.g., documentation of training data sources, model logic) may conflict with trade secret protections under Data Act Article 6 - protective measures must be designed to satisfy both regimes where possible

Cyber Resilience Act (CRA) interaction:

• CRA imposes cybersecurity obligations on products with digital elements
• Data Act data access obligations must be implemented securely (authentication, encryption, access logging)
• Security vulnerabilities in data access interfaces create CRA compliance risks
• Coordinated incident response across Data Act and CRA frameworks
• Friction point: CRA security-by-design requirements may impose technical constraints (e.g., access logging, authentication strength, update mechanisms) that limit the feasibility or format of real-time data access under Data Act Article 4, requiring a balancing exercise between access and security

Data Governance Act (DGA) interaction:

• DGA regulates data intermediaries and data altruism - complementary to Data Act user access rights
• Data cooperatives may act as data recipients on behalf of users

Ask:

• Does the data in question contain personal data subject to GDPR?
• Will data be used for AI training or high-risk AI systems?
• Are cybersecurity measures for data access aligned with CRA requirements?
• Are there overlapping obligations that require integrated compliance?

→ For detailed interaction analysis and compliance integration strategies, read references/cross-regulation-mapping.md.

Step 12 - DACH-Specific Considerations

If your organization operates in Germany, Austria, or Switzerland, consider national implementation and enforcement nuances.

Germany:

• Designated authority: Verify the authority designation against the current German implementing legislation and administrative practice. Do not assume a lead authority unless it has been formally designated.
• State authorities: Landesdatenschutzbehörden for GDPR-Data Act overlaps
• BNetzA (Federal Network Agency) may have sector-specific roles (telecommunications, energy)
• BetrVG (Works Constitution Act) may require works council consultation where employee data is involved
• GWB (Competition Act) interaction with B2B fairness provisions

Austria:

• Designated authority: Verify the authority designation against the current Austrian implementing legislation and administrative practice. Do not assume a lead authority unless it has been formally designated.
• DSB (Datenschutzbehörde) for data protection overlaps

When enforcement designation is unsettled:

• Check the current implementing statute in the relevant Member State
• Check sector regulator guidance (if sector-specific rules apply)
• Check whether GDPR overlap routes enforcement to the Data Protection Authority
• Record enforcement uncertainty as a risk assumption in the compliance assessment

Switzerland:

• Not directly applicable (non-EU), but may apply via contractual incorporation or as market best practice
• Swiss Federal Data Protection Act (revFADP) applies to personal data
• Cross-border data flows between EU and Swiss entities subject to equivalence regime

Ask:

• Which national authority will enforce Data Act obligations in your jurisdiction?
• Are there sector-specific authorities (energy, telecoms, finance) with overlapping mandates?
• Are works councils involved where employee data access is at stake?
• For Swiss entities: is voluntary compliance or contractual incorporation appropriate?

→ For DACH authority mapping, national implementation status, and enforcement approaches, read references/dach-specific.md.

Step 13 - EU Representative for Non-EU Businesses (Article 39)

If your organization is established outside the EU but offers products or services in scope of the Data Act within the EU, you must designate an EU representative.

Representative obligations:

1. Natural or legal person established in the EU
2. Authorized to act on behalf of the non-EU entity
3. Addressable by market surveillance authorities and users
4. Must cooperate with authorities and provide documentation on request

Ask:

• Is your organization established outside the EU but selling connected products or cloud services in the EU?
• Have you designated an EU representative with appropriate authority and resources?
• Is the representative's contact information publicly available and communicated to users?

This is a gateway compliance obligation for non-EU entities to ensure enforceability.

Quick Question Set

Use these questions at intake before conducting a full compliance assessment:

Scope and Role

1. Does your organization manufacture connected products, IoT devices, or smart equipment?
2. Do you hold data generated by products or services (whether you manufactured them or not)?
3. Do you provide commercial cloud computing, data storage, or processing services?
4. Are you a public authority that might request data for emergency or public interest purposes?
5. Do you receive data from data holders at users' request to provide value-added services?

Product and Service Context 6. What connected products or services are in scope? 7. What data is generated by product use or service operation? 8. Is the data accessible to users today? In what format and through what channels? 9. Are there third-party data sharing mechanisms in place? 10. When were the products designed, and when will they be placed on the market?

Contractual and Commercial 11. Do you enter B2B contracts for data access or sharing? 12. Are your contract terms individually negotiated or based on standard templates? 13. Do you charge fees for data access, switching, or export? 14. What are your current contract termination notice periods and exit fee structures?

Technical and Security 15. What APIs, interfaces, or technical mechanisms exist for data access? 16. How is data formatted, and is it machine-readable? 17. Are security, authentication, and access logging in place? 18. Do you use smart contracts for automated data transactions?

Cross-Regulation and Enforcement 19. Does the data contain personal data subject to GDPR? 20. Is the data used for AI system training or high-risk AI applications? 21. Are cybersecurity obligations under the Cyber Resilience Act applicable? 22. Which national authority (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, other) has jurisdiction?

If key answers are missing, state assumptions and identify them as compliance gaps or implementation blockers.

Reference Files

Load these as needed during the assessment:

File	When to read
references/scope-assessment.md	Determining which Data Act roles apply - manufacturer, data holder, user, data recipient, cloud provider, public body
references/data-access-rights.md	User access and third-party sharing rights, technical requirements, refusal grounds, fee structures
references/unfair-terms-catalogue.md	B2B contract fairness - unfair per se vs presumptively unfair terms, safe harbor conditions, examples
references/cloud-switching.md	Cloud portability, switching timelines, fee phase-out, export formats, interoperability standards
references/b2g-data-sharing.md	Public authority requests, emergency vs public interest grounds, proportionality, compensation
references/cross-regulation-mapping.md	GDPR, AI Act, CRA, DGA interaction analysis and integrated compliance strategies
references/dach-specific.md	Germany/Austria/Switzerland authorities, national enforcement, works council, sector overlays
references/templates.md	Compliance checklists, data access request response templates, contract review checklists, gap analysis

Output Format

Every Data Act compliance engagement should produce these deliverables:

1. Scope Assessment Memo - determination of which Data Act roles apply to the organization, products/services in scope, and key obligations triggered.

2. Compliance Gap Analysis - structured assessment of current vs required state across data access, transparency, contract terms, cloud switching, and access-by-design.

3. Implementation Roadmap - timeline for bringing systems, contracts, and processes into compliance, prioritized by application dates (Sept 2025 main requirements, Sept 2026 access-by-design, Jan 2027 fee phase-out).

4. Data Access Rights Matrix - table mapping connected products/services, data types, current access mechanisms, required improvements, responsible teams, and deadlines.

5. Contract Review Checklist - assessment tool for B2B data sharing agreements against unfair terms catalogue, with recommended revisions.

6. B2G Request Response Template - standard process for receiving, evaluating, and responding to public authority data requests.

7. Cross-Regulation Integration Plan - mapping of Data Act obligations to GDPR, AI Act, CRA compliance programs to avoid duplication and ensure coherence.

→ For templates and model wording, read references/templates.md.

Key Compliance Notes

• Phased application dates: Main requirements from 12 September 2025, access-by-design from 12 September 2026, cloud switching fee elimination by 12 January 2027.
• Role-specific obligations: Not all obligations apply to all entities - scope assessment is the critical first step.
• No GDPR override: Personal data protections under GDPR remain in force - Data Act and GDPR apply in parallel.
• Enforcement: National market surveillance authorities, data protection authorities (for GDPR overlaps), and potentially competition authorities depending on national implementation. Penalties: The EU-level framework under Article 40 requires Member States to lay down rules on effective, proportionate, and dissuasive penalties. Germany's draft Datendurchführungsgesetz (DADG) provides for penalties up to €5 million, or 2% of global turnover for DMA gatekeepers. No EU-wide percentage cap exists in the Data Act itself.
• SME simplifications: Micro and small enterprises (< 50 employees, < €10M turnover) benefit from simplified obligations as manufacturers. Micro/small enterprises (< 10 employees, < €2M turnover) are exempt from data sharing obligations when acting as data holders (Article 7(1)).
• Gatekeeper exclusions: Digital Markets Act gatekeepers have separate data access obligations - data holders may NOT be compelled to share with DMA gatekeepers (Article 6(2)(e)).
• Model Contractual Terms (MCTs): Commission Recommendation issued November 2025 provides non-binding MCTs for data sharing contracts. MCTs are drafting benchmarks but do not create a blanket statutory safe harbor. Contract terms should still be tested against Article 13 on their own wording, negotiation history, and commercial context.
• Dispute resolution: Certified dispute settlement bodies available for data access refusals, fee disagreements, compensation terms, and trade secret claims (Article 10).

Disclaimer

This skill provides structured workflow support for Regulation (EU) 2023/2854 (EU Data Act). It does not constitute legal advice. Whether an entity qualifies as a manufacturer, data holder, or provider of public services, whether contract terms are unfair, whether trade secret protection is justified, or whether a B2G request is proportionate may depend on national law, sector rules, case law, and supervisory guidance. The analysis should be reviewed by qualified counsel, especially before product launch, contract finalization, authority engagement, or enforcement proceedings.