From urban-design-skills
Applies climate-specific urban design strategies for hot-arid, tropical, temperate, and cold climates. Covers building orientation, shading, wind management, vegetation, heat island mitigation, stormwater, and thermal comfort.
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This skill provides a systematic framework for designing urban environments
Provides urban design theories, principles, quantitative standards, and rules of thumb from 40+ theorists for masterplanning, site analysis, street design, public spaces, density, and sustainability.
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This skill provides a systematic framework for designing urban environments that respond to local climate conditions. It draws on bioclimatic design principles, the Koppen-Geiger climate classification, thermal comfort research (UTCI, PET), urban heat island science, and green infrastructure best practices from cities worldwide. The goal is to ensure that every urban design decision -- from street orientation to material selection -- is informed by the specific climate context of the project.
Use the following decision tree to identify the relevant climate zone for any project location. This simplified classification maps the Koppen-Geiger system to four design-relevant climate archetypes.
START: What is the average temperature of the hottest month?
> 30 C --> What is the annual rainfall?
| |
| +--> < 250 mm --> HOT-ARID (BWh/BSh)
| +--> 250-500 mm --> HOT-ARID (BSh) with seasonal rain
| +--> > 500 mm --> What is the average humidity?
| |
| +--> RH > 70% --> TROPICAL (Af/Am/Aw)
| +--> RH < 70% --> HOT-ARID (semi-arid transition)
|
25-30 C --> What is the average temperature of the coldest month?
| |
| +--> > 18 C --> TROPICAL (Af/Am/Aw)
| +--> 0-18 C --> What is the annual rainfall?
| | |
| | +--> Dry summers (Csa/Csb) --> TEMPERATE (Mediterranean)
| | +--> Uniform/wet summers --> TEMPERATE (Cfa/Cfb)
| |
| +--> < 0 C --> COLD (Dfb/Dfc)
|
< 25 C --> What is the coldest month average?
|
+--> > 0 C --> TEMPERATE (Cfb/Cfc)
+--> -3 to 0 C --> TEMPERATE (cold variant, Dfb transition)
+--> < -3 C --> COLD (Dfb/Dfc/ET)
HOT-ARID (BWh / BSh)
TROPICAL (Af / Am / Aw)
TEMPERATE (Cfa / Cfb / Csa / Csb)
COLD (Dfb / Dfc / ET)
The following matrix provides specific design values for each strategy across the four climate zones. Use this as a rapid-reference lookup for any design decision.
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary street axis | E-W (narrow canyon) | N-S or NE-SW (capture breeze) | E-W (maximize south facade solar) | E-W (maximize south facade solar) |
| Secondary street axis | N-S (minimize west exposure) | E-W (cross-ventilation) | N-S (variety and ventilation) | N-S (minimize wind tunnels) |
| Diagonal streets | Avoid (increases sun exposure) | 45 degrees to wind (optimal ventilation) | Acceptable with shading | Avoid (creates wind acceleration) |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| E-W streets | 2:1 to 4:1 (deep shade) | 0.5:1 to 1:1 (air flow) | 1:1 to 1.5:1 (balanced) | 0.5:1 to 1:1 (solar access) |
| N-S streets | 1:1 to 2:1 | 0.5:1 to 1:1 | 1:1 to 2:1 | 1:1 to 1.5:1 |
| Optimal canyon width (local) | 6-10m (narrow, shaded) | 15-20m (wide, ventilated) | 12-18m (moderate) | 12-16m (moderate, wind-protected) |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tree canopy target | 20-30% (water-limited) | 30-40% (lush canopy) | 30-40% (deciduous dominant) | 15-25% (hardy species) |
| Tree type | Drought-tolerant, deep roots, spreading canopy (date palm, ghaf, mesquite, palo verde) | Broad-leaf evergreen, rapid growth, high transpiration (rain tree, mango, ficus, mahogany) | Deciduous for seasonal light (maple, oak, plane, linden, elm) | Deciduous south side (birch, linden, ash); evergreen north side as windbreak (spruce, pine, fir) |
| Understory | Drought-tolerant groundcover, gravel mulch, xeriscaping | Dense understory, rain gardens, bioswales, tropical grasses | Mixed perennial, seasonal interest, rain gardens | Hardy groundcover, salt-tolerant near roads, snow-shedding shrubs |
| Irrigation | Drip irrigation required, greywater reuse, no spray irrigation | Rarely needed (self-sustaining with natural rainfall) | Establishment period only (1-3 years), then rain-fed | Not typically needed; snow melt provides moisture |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thermal mass | High: thick walls (300-400mm), stone, concrete, rammed earth | Low: lightweight, timber, steel, ventilated cavities | Medium: masonry with insulation, concrete frame with thermal breaks | High: heavy insulated walls (300mm+ insulation), thermal mass inside insulation envelope |
| Wall construction | Insulated masonry or ICF, light color exterior, small windows on E/W | Lightweight framed, large openings, operable louvers, ventilated rain screen | Masonry cavity wall with insulation, moderate glazing ratio | Triple-glazed, super-insulated (R-40+ walls), airtight with HRV |
| Roof design | Flat or low-slope, high albedo (SRI >78), insulated | Steep pitch (>25 degrees), overhanging eaves (1.5m+), ventilated attic | Moderate pitch, insulated, green roof or cool roof | Steep pitch (>30 degrees) for snow shedding, heavily insulated (R-60+), ice dam prevention |
| Color palette | Light: white, cream, sand, beige (albedo >0.6) | Medium: natural tones, greens (roof vegetation preferred) | Variable: responsive to context and aesthetics | Medium to dark (absorb limited winter sun), but with high insulation values |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plaza design | Shaded courtyard (80% shade), fountains, evaporative cooling, small and enclosed | Open, elevated for breeze, rain-sheltered pavilions, water features for cooling | Sunny plazas (south-facing), wind-sheltered, seasonal use (outdoor dining Apr-Oct) | Sun traps: south-facing, wind-sheltered enclosures, heated surfaces, year-round weather protection |
| Park design | Oasis model: shade trees, water channels, walled gardens, night use | Canopy parks: dense tree cover, elevated paths above flood level, water management features | Four-season parks: deciduous trees, open lawns for sun, sheltered seating areas, rain gardens | Winter-activated parks: skating, sledding hills, sheltered play, illuminated landscapes, heated pavilions |
| Key feature | Water conservation and shade | Drainage and ventilation | Seasonal adaptability | Wind protection and solar exposure |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hot-season wind | Block hot desert winds with walls, dense planting, building mass | Channel sea breeze through buildings and streets (wind corridors) | Capture summer breeze for ventilation through parks and open spaces | Block cold winter winds with buildings, evergreen windbreaks, terrain |
| Cold-season wind | Welcome cool winter breezes (open up wind paths) | N/A (no cold season) | Shelter outdoor spaces from north/northwest winter winds | Primary design challenge: create wind shadows, wind breaks at 10-15x tree height |
| Building orientation for wind | Minimize windward openings in hot-wind direction | Orient long axis perpendicular to prevailing breeze for cross-ventilation | Balance ventilation and wind protection seasonally | Long axis parallel to prevailing cold wind (minimize exposed facade) |
| Wind corridors | Not needed (wind carries heat and dust) | Essential: 30-50m wide, aligned with prevailing breeze, connect coast/river to interior | Moderate: 20-30m corridors through dense areas for summer ventilation | Avoid creating wind tunnels; stagger buildings to break wind |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary challenge | Scarcity: conserve every drop | Abundance: manage intense rainfall and flooding | Balance: seasonal dry spells and wet periods | Snow management, spring melt flooding, frozen ground infiltration |
| Stormwater approach | Wadis (dry channels), cisterns, retention basins sized for rare events | Large bioswales, detention ponds, elevated structures, permeable surfaces everywhere | Rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs, permeable paving, detention basins | Snow storage areas, snowmelt management, insulated bioswales, spring detention |
| Water reuse | Greywater recycling mandatory, blackwater treatment for irrigation, rainwater harvesting (every drop) | Rainwater harvesting for non-potable use, constructed wetlands for treatment | Rainwater harvesting optional, greywater for toilet flushing and irrigation | Snowmelt collection, limited greywater (freezing concerns in pipes) |
| Design storm | Size for 50-100 year event (rare but catastrophic flash floods) | Size for 10-year event with overflow for 100-year | Size for 10-25 year event | Size for spring snowmelt + 10-year rain event combined |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preferred material | Light-colored stone, light concrete, compacted stabilized earth, gravel | Permeable paving, elevated boardwalks, gravel paths, natural stone, grass pavers | Mix of concrete, natural stone, permeable paving, planted areas | Durable concrete, heated pavement at entries, salt-resistant materials, textured for traction |
| Albedo target | >0.5 (high reflectance) | 0.3-0.4 (moderate, avoid glare) | 0.3-0.4 (moderate) | 0.2-0.3 (lower albedo absorbs winter sun; prioritize traction) |
| Permeability target | 30%+ of paved area (flash flood management) | 60%+ of paved area (continuous rainfall infiltration) | 40-50% of paved area | 30-40% (limited by freeze-thaw durability of permeable paving) |
| Special considerations | Glare control (avoid highly polished surfaces), thermal comfort (surface temp >70 C in sun on dark paving) | Slip resistance when wet, rapid drainage, mold/algae resistance | Freeze-thaw resistance, seasonal maintenance | Snow plow compatibility, de-icing chemical resistance, heated sidewalks at high-use areas |
| Strategy | Hot-Arid | Tropical | Temperate | Cold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary type | Cool roof (SRI >78, albedo >0.65) or photovoltaic | Green roof (extensive, drought-resistant succulents) or steep ventilated roof | Green roof (extensive or intensive) or cool roof | Steep pitch (>30 deg), dark color (snow melt), heavily insulated, photovoltaic (optimal tilt for low sun angle) |
| Green roof suitability | Limited (water-intensive); use succulent species or PV instead | Excellent (rainfall sustains vegetation); use 150mm+ substrate for stormwater retention | Excellent (moderate rainfall); extensive (sedum, 100mm substrate) or intensive (full garden) | Possible but challenging (freeze-thaw, short growing season); use hardy sedum, structural snow load design |
| Rainwater collection | Priority: collect from all roofs, store in cisterns | Useful for non-potable (toilet flushing, irrigation during dry season) | Moderate priority; useful for irrigation and toilet flushing | Collect snowmelt; insulate storage to prevent freezing |
The urban heat island (UHI) effect causes cities to be 2-8 C warmer than surrounding rural areas, with the greatest differential at night. This section provides specific strategies and their measured cooling performance.
Green infrastructure manages stormwater at the source, reducing flooding, filtering pollutants, recharging groundwater, and creating amenity. The following toolkit is calibrated for urban design applications.
Outdoor thermal comfort determines whether people actually use public spaces. The following metrics and design responses ensure that plazas, parks, streets, and outdoor dining areas are comfortable for the intended duration of use.
UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index) The most comprehensive index, accounting for air temperature, radiation, humidity, and wind speed. Comfort categories:
| UTCI Range | Stress Category | Typical Response |
|---|---|---|
| > 46 C | Extreme heat stress | Dangerous; no prolonged outdoor activity |
| 38 - 46 C | Very strong heat stress | Limit to short transit; full shade required |
| 32 - 38 C | Strong heat stress | Shade and breeze essential; limit sitting time to 15-20 min |
| 26 - 32 C | Moderate heat stress | Shade preferred; comfortable with breeze |
| 9 - 26 C | No thermal stress | Comfortable zone; design target for public spaces |
| 0 - 9 C | Slight cold stress | Wind protection needed; sunny spots preferred |
| -13 - 0 C | Moderate cold stress | Wind protection and solar exposure critical; limit sitting |
| -27 - -13 C | Strong cold stress | Heated shelters needed; outdoor use limited to transit |
| < -27 C | Very strong to extreme cold | Dangerous; enclosed or heated spaces required |
PET (Physiological Equivalent Temperature) Widely used in European urban climate studies. Based on the human energy balance model.
| PET Range | Thermal Perception | Grade of Stress |
|---|---|---|
| < 4 C | Very cold | Extreme cold stress |
| 4 - 8 C | Cold | Strong cold stress |
| 8 - 13 C | Cool | Moderate cold stress |
| 13 - 18 C | Slightly cool | Slight cold stress |
| 18 - 23 C | Comfortable | No thermal stress |
| 23 - 29 C | Slightly warm | Slight heat stress |
| 29 - 35 C | Warm | Moderate heat stress |
| 35 - 41 C | Hot | Strong heat stress |
| > 41 C | Very hot | Extreme heat stress |
The amount of shade needed in public spaces depends on latitude, season, and intended use duration.
| Latitude | Summer Shade Needed | Winter Shade Needed | Strategy |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0-15 N/S (Equatorial) | 80-90% | 60-70% | Year-round shade structures, dense tree canopy |
| 15-25 N/S (Tropical) | 70-80% | 40-50% | Deciduous shade trees (if species available) or adjustable shade |
| 25-35 N/S (Subtropical) | 70-80% | 20-30% | Deciduous trees (bare in winter for solar access), retractable canopies |
| 35-45 N/S (Mid-latitude) | 50-70% | 10-20% | Deciduous trees dominant; sunny south-facing seating areas in winter |
| 45-55 N/S (High latitude) | 40-50% | 0-10% | Maximize winter sun exposure; light summer shade from trees |
| 55-65 N/S (Subarctic) | 20-30% | 0% | Maximize sun year-round; wind protection is priority over shade |
The Lawson wind comfort criteria define acceptable wind speeds for different outdoor activities:
| Activity | Maximum Acceptable Mean Wind Speed | Gust Threshold |
|---|---|---|
| Long-term sitting (outdoor dining, reading) | 2.5 m/s | 4 m/s |
| Short-term sitting (bench, waiting) | 4 m/s | 6 m/s |
| Standing (waiting, window shopping) | 6 m/s | 8 m/s |
| Walking (strolling) | 8 m/s | 10 m/s |
| Walking (brisk, commuting) | 10 m/s | 13 m/s |
| Uncomfortable for all activities | > 10 m/s | > 15 m/s |
| Dangerous (risk of falling) | > 15 m/s | > 20 m/s |
Shade Structures
Wind Screens and Shelters
Radiant Heat Management
Solar access is both an opportunity (winter heating, daylight, renewable energy) and a challenge (summer overheating, glare). This section provides the analytical tools for urban-scale solar design.
Solar noon altitude angles at key dates (use for shadow length calculations and building spacing):
| Latitude | Winter Solstice | Equinox | Summer Solstice |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 (Equator) | 66.5 deg | 90.0 deg | 66.5 deg |
| 10 N/S | 56.5 deg | 80.0 deg | 76.5 deg |
| 20 N/S | 46.5 deg | 70.0 deg | 86.5 deg |
| 23.5 N/S (Tropic) | 43.0 deg | 66.5 deg | 90.0 deg |
| 30 N/S | 36.5 deg | 60.0 deg | 83.5 deg |
| 35 N/S | 31.5 deg | 55.0 deg | 78.5 deg |
| 40 N/S | 26.5 deg | 50.0 deg | 73.5 deg |
| 45 N/S | 21.5 deg | 45.0 deg | 68.5 deg |
| 50 N/S | 16.5 deg | 40.0 deg | 63.5 deg |
| 55 N/S | 11.5 deg | 35.0 deg | 58.5 deg |
| 60 N/S | 6.5 deg | 30.0 deg | 53.5 deg |
Shadow Length = Building Height / tan(solar altitude angle)
Worked Examples (at solar noon):
A 20m building at latitude 40 N:
A 30m building at latitude 55 N:
To ensure that a south-facing facade receives at least 2 hours of direct sunlight at winter solstice (a common planning standard), the minimum spacing between buildings (measured from the south facade of the northern building to the north facade of the southern building) is:
Minimum Spacing = Building Height (to south) x [1 / tan(winter solstice noon altitude)]
This is a simplified rule for noon. For 2-hour solar access (10:00-14:00), the actual calculation requires checking shadow angles at the start and end times as well. A practical rule of thumb:
| Latitude | Min Spacing as Multiple of Building Height |
|---|---|
| 25 N/S | 1.5x building height |
| 35 N/S | 2.0x building height |
| 45 N/S | 2.5x building height |
| 55 N/S | 4.5x building height |
| 60 N/S | 8.0x building height |
The solar envelope is a three-dimensional volume within which a building can be constructed without blocking a specified duration of solar access on neighboring properties. It is defined by:
The solar envelope is tallest at the south side of a parcel and shortest at the north side (in the northern hemisphere). It is the primary tool for calibrating building height and massing in solar-access-sensitive contexts.
Application by Climate Zone:
Detailed design strategies for each climate zone are documented in:
references/climate-zones.md
This reference provides city-specific case studies, construction details, vegetation species lists, and performance benchmarks for each of the four climate archetypes.
Complete green infrastructure specifications, urban tree species selection guide, cool materials database, and passive climate strategies at the urban scale are documented in:
references/mitigation-strategies.md