SurrealQL Reference — Comprehensive Syntax Guide

This skill covers SurrealDB 3.0 specific syntax that differs from standard SQL. Focus on the "gotchas" -- things a Postgres/MySQL developer would get wrong.

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CRITICAL DIFFERENCES FROM SQL

1. No JOINs Required

In SQL, you join tables. In SurrealQL, you traverse record links directly:

-- SQL style (won't work in SurrealQL)
SELECT a.name, b.title FROM author a JOIN article b ON a.id = b.author_id;

-- SurrealQL style (correct)
SELECT name, ->wrote->article.title AS articles FROM author;
-- or with FETCH
SELECT *, ->wrote->article.title FROM author FETCH wrote;

2. @N@ Full-Text Search Operator

The @1@ operator references a numbered full-text search index:

-- With index 1 defined: DEFINE INDEX ft_title ON book FIELDS title FULLTEXT ANALYZER en BM25;
SELECT search::score(1) AS score, search::highlight('<b>', '</b>', 1) AS title
FROM book
WHERE title @1@ 'rust web framework'
ORDER BY score DESC;

Key gotcha: The number @N@ must match the index definition order. First index is @1@, second is @2@.

3. Graph Traversal with Arrow Operators

Multi-hop graph queries replace nested subqueries:

-- One hop: who did this person write?
SELECT ->wrote->article FROM person:tobie;

-- Reverse: who wrote this article?
SELECT <-wrote<-person FROM article:surreal;

-- Two hops: friends of friends
SELECT ->knows->person->knows->person FROM person:tobie;

-- Bidirectional: both directions
SELECT <->sister_city<->city FROM city:calgary;

4. DEFAULT vs VALUE vs COMPUTED

Three different ways to derive data:

-- DEFAULT: applied when no value is provided on CREATE; user values are accepted
DEFINE FIELD created_at ON memory TYPE datetime DEFAULT time::now();

-- DEFAULT ALWAYS: re-applies default on UPDATE if value is NONE (since v2.2.0)
DEFINE FIELD primary ON product TYPE number DEFAULT ALWAYS 123.456;

-- VALUE: ALWAYS overrides user-provided values on CREATE and UPDATE; stored on disk
DEFINE FIELD slug ON article TYPE string VALUE string::slug(title);
DEFINE FIELD updated_at ON memory TYPE datetime VALUE time::now();

-- COMPUTED: recalculated on every READ (query-time, NOT stored)
-- Replaces VALUE <future> { ... } which was removed in 3.0
DEFINE FIELD age ON person COMPUTED time::year(time::now()) - time::year(born);

Gotcha: VALUE overrides everything — if you define VALUE time::now(), users cannot set the field to anything else. Use DEFAULT if you want user values accepted. Gotcha: Fields with VALUE are evaluated in alphabetical order by field name. Gotcha: <future> was completely removed in 3.0. Use COMPUTED instead.

5. Record Links vs RELATE vs REFERENCE

Three ways to model relationships:

-- Record link (simple pointer)
DEFINE FIELD author ON book TYPE record<person>;
SELECT author.name FROM book;  -- author's name resolved automatically

-- RELATE (explicit edge with properties)
RELATE user:alice->purchased->product:laptop SET quantity = 2, price = 999.99;

-- REFERENCE (bidirectional with cascade rules — stabilized in 3.0, experimental since v2.2.0)
DEFINE FIELD author ON article TYPE record<user> REFERENCE ON DELETE CASCADE;
-- Now user can use REFERENCES to find incoming links: SELECT <~article FROM user:alice;
-- NOTE: Record references may require --allow-experimental record_references on older builds

6. SPLIT vs GROUP BY

They cannot be combined in 3.0:

-- SPLIT: flatten arrays into separate rows
SELECT * FROM person SPLIT emails;

-- GROUP BY: aggregate (cannot combine with SPLIT)
SELECT count(), country FROM person GROUP BY country;

-- Workaround: use subquery
SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM person SPLIT emails) WHERE active = true;

7. ONLY Keyword

Returns a single object instead of an array:

-- Returns [{ id: person:tobie, ... }]
SELECT * FROM person:tobie;

-- Returns { id: person:tobie, ... }
SELECT * FROM ONLY person:tobie;

-- Same with CREATE
CREATE ONLY person:tobie SET name = 'Tobie';

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STATEMENTS CHEAT SHEET

SELECT Syntax (Full)

SELECT [VALUE] @fields [AS @alias] [OMIT @fields]
  FROM [ONLY] @targets
  [WITH [NOINDEX | INDEX @indexes]]
  [WHERE @conditions]
  [SPLIT [ON] @field, ...]
  [GROUP [ALL | [BY] @field, ...]]
  [ORDER [BY] RAND() | @field [COLLATE] [NUMERIC] [ASC | DESC], ...]
  [LIMIT [BY] @limit]
  [START [AT] @start]
  [FETCH @fields ...]
  [TIMEOUT @duration]
  [EXPLAIN [FULL]];

Key features:

• VALUE returns flat array instead of array of objects
• OMIT excludes specific fields
• FETCH eagerly resolves record links
• SPLIT flattens arrays into rows
• ONLY returns single object not array

UPSERT Syntax

UPSERT @target SET @field = @value [, ...]
  [RETURN [NONE | BEFORE | AFTER | DIFF]];

-- Examples
UPSERT person:tobie SET name = 'Tobie', age = 35;
UPSERT memory:abc123 MERGE { importance = 0.8 };
UPSERT evolution_state SET key = 'decay_rates', value = { episodic: 1.0 }, updated_at = time::now()
  WHERE key = 'decay_rates';

Gotcha: UPSERT supports WHERE conditions — use them for conditional matching (e.g., UPSERT ... SET ... WHERE key = 'x'). The full syntax also supports CONTENT, MERGE, PATCH, REPLACE, UNSET, TIMEOUT, PARALLEL, and EXPLAIN.

CREATE Syntax

CREATE [ONLY] @target [SET @field = @value | CONTENT @object] [RETURN ...]
  [TIMEOUT @duration];

-- Examples
CREATE person:tobie SET name = 'Tobie', age = 35;
CREATE person:rand() SET name = 'Auto ID';
CREATE person:ulid() SET name = 'ULID';
CREATE |person:1..100| SET count = <int>id.id();  -- batch create
CREATE person CONTENT { name: { first: 'Tobie' }, age: 35 };

ID Types:

• No suffix: generates auto ID
• :rand() or :(auto)
• :uuid()
• :ulid() (time-sortable)
• :[array] (composite key for time-series)

RELATE Syntax

RELATE [ONLY] @from -> @edge_table -> @to
  [CONTENT @value | SET @field = @value ...]
  [RETURN ...]
  [TIMEOUT @duration];

-- Examples
RELATE user:alice->purchased->product:laptop SET quantity = 2;
RELATE person:one->wrote->[blog:1, book:1, comment:1];  -- multiple targets
LET $devs = (SELECT * FROM user WHERE tags CONTAINS 'developer');
RELATE company:acme->employs->$devs;
-- For unique edges, use a separate index (UNIQUE is NOT a RELATE keyword):
-- DEFINE INDEX unique_employs ON employs FIELDS in, out UNIQUE;

Edge table must be TYPE RELATION:

DEFINE TABLE purchased TYPE RELATION FROM user TO product SCHEMAFULL;

DEFINE FIELD Syntax

DEFINE FIELD [IF NOT EXISTS | OVERWRITE] @field ON [TABLE] @table
  [TYPE @type [FLEXIBLE]]
  [COMPUTED @expression]
  [REFERENCE [ON DELETE CASCADE|REJECT|IGNORE|UNSET|THEN @expr]]
  [DEFAULT [ALWAYS] @expression]
  [READONLY]
  [VALUE @expression]
  [ASSERT @expression]
  [PERMISSIONS ...]
  [COMMENT @string]
  ;

Note: Both FLEXIBLE TYPE object and TYPE object FLEXIBLE are accepted in 3.0 docs.

Type examples:

DEFINE FIELD name ON memory TYPE string;
DEFINE FIELD tags ON memory TYPE array<string> DEFAULT [];
DEFINE FIELD importance ON memory TYPE float DEFAULT 0.5;
DEFINE FIELD memory_type ON memory TYPE string ASSERT $value IN ['episodic', 'semantic', 'procedural', 'working'];
DEFINE FIELD embedding ON memory TYPE option<array<float>>;
DEFINE FIELD metadata ON memory TYPE object FLEXIBLE;  -- both positions accepted in 3.0
DEFINE FIELD author ON book TYPE record<person> REFERENCE ON DELETE CASCADE;

-- COMPUTED field (evaluated on every read, NOT stored — replaces <future> in 3.0)
DEFINE FIELD age ON person COMPUTED time::year(time::now()) - time::year(born);

-- VALUE field (evaluated on every write, stored on disk)
DEFINE FIELD memory_strength ON memory VALUE
  importance * math::pow(
    IF memory_type = 'procedural' THEN 0.999
    ELSE IF memory_type = 'semantic' THEN 0.995
    ELSE IF memory_type = 'episodic' THEN 0.99
    ELSE 0.95
    END,
    duration::hours(time::now() - last_accessed_at)
  );

-- VALUE field (computed on write, stored)
DEFINE FIELD updated_at ON memory TYPE datetime VALUE time::now();

DEFINE INDEX Syntax

DEFINE INDEX [IF NOT EXISTS] @name ON TABLE @table
  FIELDS @field [, ...]
  [UNIQUE]
  [FULLTEXT ANALYZER @analyzer BM25[(@k1, @b)] [HIGHLIGHTS]]
  [HNSW DIMENSION @dim DIST @distance [@params]]
  [CONCURRENTLY]
  ;

Examples:

-- Standard index
DEFINE INDEX memory_scope ON memory FIELDS scope;

-- Unique index
DEFINE INDEX evolution_key ON evolution_state FIELDS key UNIQUE;

-- Full-text search (BM25)
DEFINE INDEX memory_content_search ON memory
  FIELDS content
  FULLTEXT ANALYZER memory_analyzer BM25;

-- HNSW vector index
DEFINE INDEX memory_embedding ON memory
  FIELDS embedding
  HNSW DIMENSION 384 DIST COSINE;

-- High-performance vector config
DEFINE INDEX idx_vec ON vectors
  FIELDS embedding
  HNSW DIMENSION 128 EFC 250 TYPE F32 DIST MANHATTAN
    M 6 M0 12 LM 0.5
    EXTEND_CANDIDATES KEEP_PRUNED_CONNECTIONS;

Vector distance metrics: COSINE, EUCLIDEAN, MANHATTAN

DEFINE EVENT Syntax

DEFINE EVENT [IF NOT EXISTS] @name ON TABLE @table
  WHEN @condition
  THEN @action
  ;

-- Examples (from mcp/src/schema.ts)
DEFINE EVENT memory_lifecycle ON TABLE memory WHEN
  $before.status != $after.status
THEN {
  CREATE retrieval_log SET
    memory_id = $after.id,
    event_type = 'lifecycle_transition',
    old_status = $before.status,
    new_status = $after.status;
};

-- Auto-queue memories for consolidation when unaccessed
DEFINE EVENT memory_decay_check ON memory WHEN $after.status = 'active' THEN {
  LET $age_days = duration::days(time::now() - $after.created_at);
  LET $since_access = duration::days(time::now() - $after.last_accessed_at);
  IF $age_days > 30 AND $since_access > 14 AND $after.importance < 0.3 THEN
    CREATE consolidation_queue SET
      memory_id = $after.id,
      reason = 'decay',
      priority = 1.0 - $after.importance
  END;
};

Variables: $before, $after, $value, $event (CREATE/UPDATE/DELETE)

DEFINE TABLE Syntax

DEFINE TABLE [IF NOT EXISTS | OVERWRITE] @table
  [DROP]
  [SCHEMAFULL | SCHEMALESS]
  [TYPE [ANY | NORMAL | RELATION [IN|FROM] @table [OUT|TO] @table [ENFORCED]]]
  [AS SELECT @projections FROM @tables ...]
  [CHANGEFEED @duration [INCLUDE ORIGINAL]]
  [PERMISSIONS ...]
  [COMMENT @string]
  ;

-- Examples
DEFINE TABLE memory SCHEMAFULL;

DEFINE TABLE relates_to TYPE RELATION FROM entity TO entity SCHEMAFULL;

DEFINE TABLE consolidation_queue SCHEMAFULL;

-- View table
DEFINE TABLE monthly_sales AS
  SELECT count() AS orders, time::format(created_at, '%Y-%m') AS month, math::sum(price) AS total
  FROM order
  GROUP BY month;

Type options:

• SCHEMAFULL (default for typed): fields must be defined
• SCHEMALESS: flexible schema
• TYPE ANY: accepts both normal records and relation edges (default if no TYPE specified)
• TYPE NORMAL: only normal records, no edges
• TYPE RELATION [IN|FROM] X [OUT|TO] Y [ENFORCED]: edge table for graph relationships
• DROP: accepts writes but discards data (useful for events-only tables)

DEFINE ANALYZER Syntax

DEFINE ANALYZER [IF NOT EXISTS] @name
  [FUNCTION fn::@preprocessor]
  TOKENIZERS @tokenizer [, ...]
  FILTERS @filter [, ...];

-- Example (from mcp/src/schema.ts)
DEFINE ANALYZER memory_analyzer
  TOKENIZERS blank, class
  FILTERS ascii, lowercase, snowball(english);

-- Custom preprocessor
DEFINE FUNCTION fn::stripHtml($html: string) {
  RETURN string::replace($html, /<[^>]*>/, "");
};

DEFINE ANALYZER html_search
  FUNCTION fn::stripHtml
  TOKENIZERS blank, class
  FILTERS lowercase;

Tokenizers: blank, camel, class, punct Filters: ascii, lowercase, uppercase, snowball(lang), edgengram(min,max), ngram(min,max), mapper(path) Preprocessing: FUNCTION fn::@preprocessor clause allows custom preprocessing before tokenization

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OPERATORS: NON-SQL BEHAVIOR

Containment Operators

Operator	Unicode	Example	Meaning
CONTAINS	∋	tags CONTAINS 'important'	Value contains another
CONTAINSANY	⊃	tags CONTAINSANY ["x", "y"]	Contains any of values
CONTAINSALL	⊇	tags CONTAINSALL ["x", "y"]	Contains all values
INSIDE / IN	∈	"admin" IN tags or "admin" INSIDE tags	Value inside another
ANYINSIDE	⊂	["a", "b"] ANYINSIDE tags	Any value inside
ALLINSIDE	⊆	["a", "b"] ALLINSIDE tags	All values inside

-- Examples
SELECT * FROM person WHERE tags CONTAINSANY ["developer", "admin"];
SELECT * FROM memory WHERE tags CONTAINSALL ["high_priority", "semantic"];
SELECT * FROM user WHERE "viewer" IN roles;

Array Equality Operators

Operator	Description
?=	Any value in set equals
*=	All values in set equal

UPSERT person:test SET sport +?= 'tennis' RETURN sport;

Fuzzy matching: The ~ operator still works for basic fuzzy comparison ("SurrealDB" ~ "db"), but ?~ and *~ were removed in 3.0. For similarity scoring, use:

• string::similarity::fuzzy(a, b) — general fuzzy similarity score
• string::similarity::jaro(a, b) — Jaro similarity
• string::similarity::jaro_winkler(a, b) — Jaro-Winkler similarity
• string::similarity::smithwaterman(a, b) — Smith-Waterman alignment

Full-Text Search

-- Index reference number after @@
WHERE title @1@ 'search term'
WHERE content @2@ 'multi word query'

Vector Operators (KNN)

-- KNN search with HNSW index (8 = K, COSINE = distance metric)
WHERE embedding <|8,COSINE|> $query_vector

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FUNCTIONS: SURREALDB-SPECIFIC

Vector Functions

-- Similarity (returns 0-1, 1 = identical)
vector::similarity::cosine([1, 2], [2, 4]);  -- 1.0 (parallel)

-- Distance (note: there is NO vector::distance::cosine — use vector::similarity::cosine instead)
vector::distance::euclidean([0, 0], [3, 4]);  -- 5
vector::distance::manhattan([0, 0], [3, 4]);  -- 7
vector::distance::hamming([1, 0, 1], [1, 1, 0]);
vector::distance::chebyshev([0, 0], [3, 4]);

-- Element-wise
vector::add([1, 2], [3, 4]);  -- [4, 6]
vector::magnitude([3, 4]);      -- 5
vector::normalize([3, 4]);      -- [0.6, 0.8]

Search Functions (Full-Text)

-- Score: relevance (higher = better match)
search::score(1);  -- for index @1@

-- Highlight: surround matches with markers
search::highlight('<b>', '</b>', 1);  -- for index @1@

-- Offsets: byte positions of matches
search::offsets(1);  -- for index @1@

Array Functions (Key Methods)

-- Set operations
array::union([1, 2], [2, 3]);      -- [1, 2, 3]
array::intersect([1,2,3], [2,3,4]); -- [2, 3]
array::complement([1,2,3], [2]);     -- [1, 3]

-- Filtering/mapping with closures
array::filter([1,2,3,4,5], |$v| $v > 2);  -- [3, 4, 5]
array::map([1,2,3], |$v| $v * 2);         -- [2, 4, 6]
-- NOTE: array::fold does NOT exist; use math::sum() for aggregation

-- Boolean
array::all([true, true]);
array::any([false, true]);  -- true

Duration Functions

duration::days(90h30m);   -- days component
duration::hours(90h30m);  -- hours component
duration::mins(1h30m);    -- minutes
duration::secs(1h30m30s); -- seconds

Time Functions

time::now();
time::round(time::now(), 1h);    -- round to nearest hour
time::format(d"2026-02-23T10:30:00Z", '%Y-%m-%d'); -- "2026-02-23"
time::month(d"2026-02-23");       -- 2
time::year(d"2026-02-23");        -- 2026

-- Arithmetic
time::now() - born > 18y;  -- older than 18 years

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GOTCHAS & COMMON MISTAKES

1. Exponential Decay Formula

In mcp/src/schema.ts, memory strength uses powers, not constants:

-- CORRECT: exponential decay
DEFINE FIELD memory_strength ON memory VALUE
  importance * math::pow(
    decay_rate,
    duration::hours(time::now() - last_accessed_at)
  );

-- WRONG: linear decay (would lose all memories too fast)
importance - (hours_since_access * decay_factor);

2. FLEXIBLE Type

FLEXIBLE on an object field allows any keys, not stricter checking:

-- Allows any object, not just specific keys (both positions accepted in 3.0)
DEFINE FIELD metadata ON memory TYPE option<object> FLEXIBLE;

-- Without FLEXIBLE, only defined fields allowed in SCHEMAFULL table

3. SPLIT Cannot Mix with GROUP BY

-- WRONG: will error in 3.0
SELECT * FROM person SPLIT emails GROUP BY country;

-- RIGHT: use subquery
SELECT * FROM (SELECT * FROM person SPLIT emails) WHERE active = true;

4. Search Index Numbers

-- Index @1@ refers to FIRST search index defined
DEFINE INDEX ft_title ON book FIELDS title FULLTEXT ANALYZER en BM25;
DEFINE INDEX ft_content ON book FIELDS content FULLTEXT ANALYZER en BM25;

-- In WHERE clause:
WHERE title @1@ 'term'          -- searches ft_title
WHERE content @2@ 'term'        -- searches ft_content

5. Record Links Auto-Resolve

-- author is record<user>, auto-resolves to full object
SELECT author.name FROM book;  -- works! no explicit FETCH needed

-- But FETCH speeds up multi-level fetches
SELECT * FROM post FETCH author, comments;

6. RELATE Creates Full Records

-- This creates a record in the 'purchased' table with fields
RELATE user:alice->purchased->product:laptop
  SET quantity = 2, price = 999.99, at = time::now();

-- Not just a pointer; it's a full edge record with data
SELECT * FROM purchased WHERE in = user:alice;
-- Returns: { in: user:alice, out: product:laptop, quantity: 2, price: 999.99, at: ... }

7. IN Range Syntax

-- Inclusive range
SELECT * FROM person WHERE age IN 18..=65;

-- NOT the same as SQL IN
SELECT * FROM person WHERE id IN (1, 2, 3);  -- this is also valid

8. NONE vs NULL

-- NONE: field doesn't exist
SELECT * FROM person WHERE email IS NONE;

-- NULL: field exists but is explicitly null
SELECT * FROM person WHERE email IS NULL;

-- Useful in VALUE fields with coalescing
DEFINE FIELD full_name ON person VALUE
  (first_name ?? '') + ' ' + (last_name ?? '');

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EXAMPLE: Memory Plugin Schema

From /mcp/src/schema.ts, here's how all pieces fit together:

-- 1. Analyzer for full-text search
DEFINE ANALYZER memory_analyzer TOKENIZERS blank, class
  FILTERS ascii, lowercase, snowball(english);

-- 2. Main memory table (SCHEMAFULL)
DEFINE TABLE memory SCHEMAFULL;

DEFINE FIELD content ON memory TYPE string;
DEFINE FIELD memory_type ON memory TYPE string
  ASSERT $value IN ['episodic', 'semantic', 'procedural', 'working'];
DEFINE FIELD importance ON memory TYPE float DEFAULT 0.5;
DEFINE FIELD status ON memory TYPE string DEFAULT 'active'
  ASSERT $value IN ['active', 'consolidated', 'archived', 'forgotten'];

-- 3. VALUE field: exponential decay with type-specific half-lives (stored on write)
DEFINE FIELD memory_strength ON memory VALUE
  importance * math::pow(
    IF memory_type = 'procedural' THEN 0.999
    ELSE IF memory_type = 'semantic' THEN 0.995
    ELSE IF memory_type = 'episodic' THEN 0.99
    ELSE 0.95 END,
    duration::hours(time::now() - last_accessed_at)
  );

-- 4. Indexes: standard, full-text, and vector
DEFINE INDEX memory_scope ON memory FIELDS scope;
DEFINE INDEX memory_content_search ON memory
  FIELDS content FULLTEXT ANALYZER memory_analyzer BM25;
DEFINE INDEX memory_embedding ON memory
  FIELDS embedding HNSW DIMENSION 384 DIST COSINE;

-- 5. Entity table for knowledge graph
DEFINE TABLE entity SCHEMAFULL;
DEFINE INDEX entity_embedding ON entity
  FIELDS embedding HNSW DIMENSION 384 DIST COSINE;

-- 6. Relation table (edge)
DEFINE TABLE relates_to TYPE RELATION FROM entity TO entity SCHEMAFULL;

-- 7. Events for lifecycle automation
DEFINE EVENT memory_lifecycle ON memory WHEN
  $before.status != $after.status
THEN {
  CREATE retrieval_log SET
    memory_id = $after.id,
    event_type = 'lifecycle_transition',
    old_status = $before.status,
    new_status = $after.status;
};

-- 8. Seeding config via UPSERT
UPSERT evolution_state SET
  key = 'decay_half_lives',
  value = { working: 0.042, episodic: 1.0, semantic: 7.0, procedural: 30.0 },
  updated_at = time::now()
WHERE key = 'decay_half_lives';

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QUICK REFERENCE: Gotchas for SQL Developers

SQL	SurrealQL	Gotcha
JOIN ... ON	->arrow->notation or FETCH	No JOINs; use graph traversal
HAVING	Subquery with WHERE	No HAVING; use subqueries
LIMIT 10 OFFSET 20	LIMIT 10 START 20	Syntax different
CREATE OR UPDATE	UPSERT	Native upsert syntax
TRIGGER	DEFINE EVENT ... THEN	Similar concept, different syntax
AUTO_INCREMENT	:ulid() or :rand()	Multiple ID generation strategies
CHECK constraint	ASSERT	Validation on field definition
GENERATED column	VALUE	Calculated on write, stored
Virtual/computed column	COMPUTED expr	Calculated on read, not stored (3.0; replaces <future>)
DEFAULT NOW()	DEFAULT time::now()	Function call, not constant
SEARCH ... MATCH	@N@ operator with search::score()	Full-text via operators
Array operations	SPLIT	Flatten array to rows
Subquery select	VALUE in SELECT	Return scalar from subquery

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Resources

• SurrealQL Deep Dive: docs/research/surrealql-reference.md
• Advanced Features: docs/research/surrealdb-advanced-features.md
• Memory Model: docs/architecture/memory-model.md
• Schema: mcp/src/schema.ts